Han Poetry
The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) was the longest lasting imperial power in Chinese history. The unification of the nation and the stability of the sovereignty provided a nurturing environment for cultural growth. Rulers of this period were known to be literary lovers, promoting creation and preservation of poetry.
Emerging from the tradition of Chuci 楚辭 was the most prominent genre of Han poetry—fù 賦. As indicated by its name, fù was descriptive and to be recited, instead of sung. Structurally, Han fù was rhymed as verses yet free flowing like proses. Inherited the elaborate vocabulary and ornate style of Chu poetry, Han fù was seminal in the development of narrative poems of later period.[1]
Contrasting to fù, yuèfǔ 樂府 was musical verses in folk style. Its name literally means the “Music Bureau.” Emperor Wu established Yuè-Fǔ, an agency overseeing the curation of ceremonial music at the court and the collection of folk music as means to manifest lives of commoners. [2] The inventory of the bureau as well as verses written in similar style developed into a specific genre known as yuèfǔ.
Praised for their vivid depictions and genuine expressions, yuèfǔ poems were written in plain language. Wordplays such as homophones and alliterations are common attributes in these ballads. There was no fixed length of verses, with most consisted of five characters. In some poems, the verses were of various lengths. To be sung and accompanied by instruments, rhythm and inflection—in other words, metrics—were essential components of yuèfǔ. Although the music of the period did not survive, some of the texts were preserved.
Several representative Han fù and yuèfǔ were included in Wen Xuan 文選, an early-sixth-century literary collection. Along with them were nineteen gushi (“ancient poems”)古詩十九首 from the Han Dynasty. These shi 詩, all of five-character verses, were similar to yuèfǔ in their unpretentious approach but were not intended to be sung. Collectively, these nineteen poems were the forerunners of the fixed length verses.[3]
Jian’an Poetry
The power of the Han Dynasty waned towards the end of the second century. The imperial courts mired by nepotism and power struggles. In 196 AD, the displaced Emperor Xian, safeguarded by Cao Cao 曹操, one of the power seekers and a military commander, established a “new capital” in Xuchang 許昌 and initiated a new regnal era, named Jian’an 建安—“establishing peace.”[4]
In the next twenty-five years, the fates of the state and the people remained in the hand of Cao Cao. Despite of his questionable character, Cao was a great military strategist as well as a prolific poet. He and two of his sons—Cao Pi 曹丕and Cao Zhi 曹植were hailed as the “three Caos” by critics of later periods for their literary contributions. Equally important were works by seven of their contemporaries, known as the “seven masters of Jian’an.”[5]
Stylistically, Jian’an poetry was influenced by yuèfǔ. Five-character verses were the norm. Reflecting the realities of a turbulent time, the poets lamented the fleeting nature of life; documented people’s suffering; declared their political idealism; and expressed their nostalgia for peace time. The writing was deeply personal and passionate.
The influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the one hand freed writers from the ethic confines of Ruism, on the other hand led to words of escapism. Some of poems of Jian’an were otherworldly fantasies or regaling tableaux. The latter provided us with evidence of frequent poetic gatherings at the court.[6]
Cao Cao’s death in March of 220 AD marked the end of the Jian’an era. In December of the same year, Cao Pi dethroned Emperor Xian and established the “Kingdom” of Wei, controlling most of northern China including the Central Plain area. Liu Bei, a remote descendant of the Han court, soon claimed himself to be the legitimate successor of the former Dynasty, ruling the central region. A third state “Wu,” led by Sun Quan, occupied the southeastern part of the land. Thus, began the Period of the Three Kingdoms (220 – 280 AD).[7]
Although the Jian’an era lasted only for a quarter of a century, poems of this period, marked by their multifaceted contents, splendid vocabulary, individualism, and fervent passions, played a significant role in the history of Chinese poetry. They enriched the character of yuèfǔ. They secured the prominence of five-character verses.
[1] Fù was on of the writing devices in Classic of Poetry, referring to the descriptive poems. Hansu, “Treatise on Literature:” “[Poems] recited instead of sung is called fù . . .” 劉勰《文心雕龍．詮賦》：「《詩》有六義，其二曰賦。賦者，鋪也，鋪采摛文，體物寫志也。」; 《漢書‧藝文志》: 「不歌而誦謂之賦。」
Among the greatest fù was “”Fu on the Shanglin Park” 上林賦, a depiction of the hunting excursion of the imperial court, by Sima Xiangru 司馬相如 (c. 179 – 117 BC), the leading writer of the genre. 昭明文選/卷8#上林_賦_Wiki
[2] 《漢書‧禮樂志》:「（武帝）乃立樂府，採詩夜誦，有趙、代、秦、楚之謳，以李延年為協律都尉。」Similar policy, which resulted in the compilation of Classic of Poetry, was carried out in the early Zhou Dynasty.
[3] Compiled by Crown Prince Zhaoming of the Southern Liang Dynasty between 520 and 530 AD, Wen Xuan (“Selected Literature”) was also known as Zhaoming Wen Xuan. Organized by genre and the natures of content, it was held in high regard for both the quantity and the quality of the selections. Wen_Xuan_Wiki Texts of Wen Xuan can be found at 昭明文選_zh.wikisource.org
[4] Chinese_era_name_Wiki
[5] Poetry_of_Cao_Cao_Wiki; 三曹_Wiki_zh-tw (中文繁體); Seven_Scholars_of_Jian’an_Wiki, Jian’an 建安七子: 孔融、陳琳、王粲、徐幹、阮瑀、應瑒、劉楨.
[6] 遊仙詩_zh-tw_Wiki (中文繁體); 昭明文選/卷20#公讌詩_zh.wikisource.org
[7] Three_Kingdoms_Wiki. Wei was the feudal name of the Cao family. Since Wei, Han, Wu are common names of many states throughout Chinese history, the three kingdoms of the early third century were identified as Cao Wei—named after the ruling family, Shu Han-by the region, and Sun Wu—by family name. Although the conflicts among the three kingdoms caused decades of destructions and sufferings, the distinctive personalities of many legendary figures as well as their affairs of this period inspired one of the greatest historical novels, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, as well as numerous theatrical works. Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_Wiki