Six Dynasties
As the three kingdoms divided the nation, China fell into a prolonged period of darkness and uncertainty. A brief reunification during the Western Jin Dynasty 西晉 (266 – 316 AD) was cut short by the invasion of Xiongnu in 311 AD.[1] Fleeing the invaders, a branch of the Jin court moving southward and founded the Eastern Jin 東晉 in Jiankang 建康, today’s Nanjing. Northern China remained in the hands of nomadic tribes—Xiongnu 匈奴, Jié 羯, Dī 氐, Qiang羌, and Xianbei 鮮卑—named “five barbarians” by historians. The power struggles amongst the tribes resulted in the existence of the “Sixteen Kingdoms.”[2] This north-south split, with the Yangtze River as the dividing line, would continue in the following centuries.
In 420 AD, Liu Yu 劉裕 overturned the Eastern Jin and established Liu Song 劉宋, the first of the “Southern Dynasties,” followed by Southern Qi 南齊 (479 – 502), Southern Liang 南涼 (502 – 557) and Chen 陳 (557 – 589). Xianbei leader Tuòba Taó 拓跋燾, Taiwu Emperor of the Northern Wei 北魏太武皇帝, eliminated Northern Liang 北涼 in 439 and unified the region. Thus, began the “Northern Dynasties,” threatening its southern counterpart with great military and economic strengths.[3]
Emperor Taiwu and his successors embraced the Han culture and administrative model. They encouraged interethnic marriages between the Xianbei and the Han people, and adopted Chinese names. These Sinicization practices eventually caused infightings within the tribe. Around 535, Northern Wei was spilt into Eastern and Western Wei, which, in turn, became Northern Qi and Northern Zhou.[4]
Throughout the three hundred sixty odd years of divisions and conflicts, six sovereignties—Sun Wu of the Three Kingdoms, Eastern Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Southern Liang, and Chen—resided in the city of Jinakang. Based on this fact, Xu Song 許嵩 of the Tang Dynasty in his documentary work Jiankang Shilu 建康實錄 coined the term “Six Dynasties.” Sima Guang 司馬光 of the Song Dynasty, traced the ruling Han authorities and applied the term to Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Southern Liang, and Chen. Both excluded the nomadic states.[5]
Chinese culture went through fundamental changes during the Six Dynasties. As the Jin court lost its control of the Central Plains, large groups of aristocrats and elites emigrated to the Middle-Lower Yangtze Plain, bringing with them wealth and cultural traditions of the north. Jiankang, with its elevated status as the first southern capital, became a nurturing environment for cultural convergence.[6] At the same time, ethnic integration in the north brought new energy and diversity into a culture which was already rich and complex.
Social order and familial hierarchy, fundamental principles of Ruism, disintegrated amid political crises. Taoism, another traditional Chinese philosophy, with its emphasis of “ways of nature” and “non-action,” became prominent during the Six Dynasties. Buddhism, first introduced to China in the Han Dynasty, also gained popularity and importance.[7] In later periods, these three principles, regardless of their differences—or, at times, conflicts, amalgamated into the essence of Chinese philosophy.
The rise of Buddhism, reinforced by the devotions of rulers of North Wei and South Liang, invigorated sculptural and architectural creations, manifested by the stone carvings at Yungang 雲岡 and Longmen 龍門 Grottoes, both listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[8] Similarly, high level of productions both in quantity and quality also took place in painting and decorative arts. All of them reflected mixed influences from different cultures.
Centuries after the creation of ink brush and paper, with the development of a “regular script” of Chinese character during Cao Wei in early 200 AD, calligraphy as an art form gained ground during the Six Dynasties.[9] Preface to the Collection of Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion (Lantingji Xu, 蘭亭集序) by Wang Xizi 王羲之, one of the calligraphy greats, provided us the perfect insights of literary activities of this period:
In March of 353, Wang, four of his sons, and other literary figures—forty-two total, gathered at “Orchid Pavilion”—”Lanting” in Kuaiji prefecture, today’s Shaoxing of Zhejiang province, for a “Spring Purification Ceremony.” Thirty-seven poems were composed as part of a drinking game. Wang, instantaneously, wrote a preface to this poetic collection on silk-cocoon paper with weasel-hair brush, which he prepared specially for the occasion. He first narrated the beautiful settings and the festivities, then, turned into laments of fleeting life.[10]
Legend has it that Wang, having become sober, made four attempts to copy the script. However, he failed to recreate the free-flowing touch of the original.
Six-Dynasties Poetry
Six-Dynasties poetry inherited and furthered the style of Jian’an Period. Over the three-hundred-plus-year period the differences between musical ballad—yuèfǔ, and literary poem—shi crystalized, as fù remained a popular form.[11] The prominence of five-syllable verses continued to grow.
Midnight Songs 子夜歌 was the most well-known collection of Six-Dynasties yuèfǔ. These amorous ballades were five-syllable quatrains, very similar to jueju of the Tang (618 – 907 AD) poems. Some of them were grouped by four seasons thematically.[12] Written from a feminine point of view with genuine expressions and sensuous tone, these works were uniquely significant in the development of yuèfǔ as well as feminism/femininity in Chinese literature.
Distinctive authors throughout the Six Dynasties, from “Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove” 竹林七賢 of the third century to Tao Yuanming 陶淵明 and Xie Lingyun 謝靈運 of the Eastern Jin, all used natural scenery as the backdrop of their works. Retrieved from public lives by choice, their writing often reflected influence from Taoism and Buddhism. Escapism, initiated in the Jian’an period, continued to be a trend during the Six Dynasties.[13]
Liu Xie of the Southern Liang, dismayed by the lack of substance in literary works, produced The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragon (Wén Xīn Diāo Lóng, 文心雕龍), the first comprehensive analytical work in Chinese literature. In his monumental work, Liu praised the contribution of Confucius in poetry and literature. Yet, the work was completed during his residency at Dinglin Monastery. Inevitably, Buddhist philosophy also impacted his approach.
In addition to the structural development, phonological evolution from Eastern Han Chinese to Middle Chinese should not be overlooked. The former, documented in Shiming 釋名, a dictionary of the Eastern Han Dynasty, c. 200 AD, already showed phonological changes from Old Chinese. Middle Chinese, practiced from the Northern and Southern Dynasties (c. fifth century) to the Song Dynasty, further departed from the old systems.[14]
In 601 AD, twenty years after Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty unified China, Lù Fǎyán 陸法言 published his Qieyun 切韻, a rhyme dictionary. With the intention of solidifying the diverse pronunciations of classical texts, Lù organized 12,158 characters by four tones and divided them into 193 rhyme groups. This book, with addendum as well as modifications over time, not only provided pronunciation guidance for poetic recitation, but also had pivotal influence on poetic construction in later periods.[15]
Politically, the Six Dynasties marked one of the darkest periods in Chinese history. On the other hand, inter-ethnic contacts, and large-scale migrations resulted in diversification of Chinese culture. Although Ruism remains the center of Chinese philosophy, Taoism and Buddhism gained importance. Linguistic and literary analysis solidified the versification. All these movements paved the way for the golden era of Chinese poetry in the Tang and Song Dynasties.
[1] A transitional capital was established in Chang’an, today’s Xi’an between 311 and 316. The Western Jin ended with the captured and execution of Emperor Min 晉愍帝.
[2] Upheaval_of_the_Five_Barbarians_Wiki, 五胡亂華_Wiki_zh-tw
[3] Northern_and_Southern_dynasties_Wiki
[4] Northern_Wei#Sinicization_Wiki
[5] Six_Dynasties_Wiki, 六朝_Wiki_zh-tw
“Wei-Jin-Southern-Northern Dynasties” is a more inclusive term used by historians to describe the power transition during this dark period of Chinese history. 魏晉南北朝_Wiki_zh-tw
[6] The term 衣冠南渡 (yì guān nán dù)—literally “attire and crown southward crossing”—was used to describe the large scale southward migration of aristocrats between the Western and Eastern Jin. Since most commoners could not afford to move, only well-dressed high society members fled with the government. 衣冠南渡-Wiki_zh-tw
[7] The principal concepts of Taoism (or Daoism) were developed during the Warring States Period around five centuries BC. Laozi was recognized as its founder. Gradually, as some of its practices being ritualized, it morphed into a religion. Taoism_Wiki, Laozi_Wiki, Wu_wei_Wiki
Although Buddhism was introduced to China around 65 AD, it was not widely practiced during the Han Dynasty. Chinese_Buddhism_Wiki
The rulers of North Wei had great impact on the rise of both religions as their administrations promoted and/or suppressed the practices at different times. Since then, the two religions have influenced each other and became less distinguished in Chinese culture.
[8] Wudi_emperor_of_Southern_Liang_dynasty_britannica.com/,
Period_of_the-Northern_and_Southern_Dynasties_metmuseum.org,
Yungang_Grottoes_Wiki, Longmen_Grottoes_Wiki
[9]Ink_brush_Wiki, the-invention-of-paper_totallyhistory.com, Regular_script_Wiki
[10] Wang_Xizhi_Wiki, Lantingji_Xu_Wiki, 蘭亭集序_Wiki_zh-tw
[11] Chinese-literature/The-Six-Dynasties-and-Sui-dynasty/britannica.com
[12] In Yuefu shiji 樂府詩集 (“Colletions of yuèfǔ”) compiled by Guo Maoqian of the Song Dynasty, there were about hundred and forty Midnight Songs from the Six Dynasties, along with works of the same style by major poets of later periods. Once believed to have been creations of a lady name Zǐyè, these poems were clearly collective works of multiple authors, including eight by Wang Jingzhu of the Southern Liang. 樂府詩集/044卷/zh.wikisource.org
[13] Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove_Wiki, Tao_Yuanming_Wiki, Xie_Lingyun_Wiki
[14] Eastern_Han_Chinese_Wiki, Shiming_Wiki, Shi-Ming_ctext.org
[15] In Qieyun, Lù used the method of fanqie 反切 to indicate the pronunciation. For each word, he used two other words, one of the same initial sound and one of the same final, to construct the sound. Fanqie_Wiki Although Qieyun was not a dictionary for common spoken language, it became a dependable phonological source for scholarly work in reconstructions of Old and Middle Chinese.