Tag: Chinese geography

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Chinese Poetry (X): The Great River Flows Eastwards 大江東去

This entry is part 15 of 35 in the series Chinese Art Song

蘇軾  Su Shi
念奴嬌 “Niàn-Nú jiāo”
[“The delightfulness of Niàn-Nú”]
赤壁懷古  Reminiscence of the Legends at Red Cliffs

大江東去，浪淘盡，千古風流人物。
The Great River flows eastwards.
Its roaring waves sweep away legendary figures of thousand-year past.
故壘西邊，人道是，三國周郎赤壁。
West of the ancient fortress,
Was said to be, Red Cliffs where young master Zhou of the Three Kingdoms led the battle.
亂石穿空，驚濤拍岸，捲起千堆雪。[1]
Jagged rocks pierce the sky,
Astonishing waves thrash the banks, hurling up massive snow-like foams.
江山如畫，一時多少豪傑。
Picturesque landscape of river and mountains,
Once inspired innumerable greats.

* * * * * * * * *

遙想公瑾當年，小喬初嫁了，雄姿英發，
I reminisce: Zhou Gongjin in his prime,
Newly espoused to the younger Qiao, radiant, majestic in bearing.
羽扇綸巾，談笑間，檣櫓灰飛煙滅。[2]
Holding a feather fan, donning a silk headscarf,
While he conversed casually, fleets of his enemies dispersed into smoke and ashes.
故國神遊，多情應笑我，早生華髪。
My thoughts meander through ancient dynasties.
Folks shall tease me for being overly sentimental, turning gray prematurely.
人生如夢，一尊還酹江月。
Life is like a dream.
Let me make an offering of wine to the reflection of the moon in the river.[3]

* * * * * * * * *

The Poet

Su Shi 蘇軾 (1037-1101), courtesy name Zizhan 子瞻, pen name Dongpo 東坡 , was one of the leading poets of the Song Dynasty. Born into a literary family in today’s Sichuan Province, Su Shi showed great interest and talent in writing at a young age. Before turning twenty, he successfully ranked jinshi 進士 in the imperial civil examination and qualified for government appointments. His mother’s death in the same year, however, put a pause to the initiation of his administrative career. In 1061, with impeccable performance, Su Shi passed the decreed exam, held periodically by the imperial order seeking exceptional talents in specified area. In the following decades, he held various official positions. Unfortunately, towards the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, the imperial court was plagued by partisan conflicts. Su’s straightforwardness often placed him in vulnerable politcal positions. Twice he was forced into exile.[4]

Most respected for his poems, he was also admired for his prose writing, painting, and calligraphy. Collectively, Su Shi, his father Su Xun 蘇洵, and his younger brother Su Zhe 蘇轍 were known as “The Three Sus” 三蘇. They were among the Eight Prose Giants of the Tang and Song Dynasties 唐宋八大家, advocating “classical prose” in plain and clear language, against the highly stylish yet esoteric pianwen 駢文 (parallel prose).[5]

A prolific poet, Su Shi was equally accomplished in shi, ci, and fù. Nevertheless, he was most influential in the development of ci. With wide range of subjects, eloquence, and authenticity, he further elevated the literary quality of the genre. Later critics would characterize his works as “vivid,” “open-minded,” “profound,” and “passionate.” He and Xin Qiji 辛棄疾 were recognized as the leaders of the hoafang 豪放 (magnificent and free-spirited) school of ci.[6]

The Tune

Niàn-Nú 念奴 was believed to be the name of a songstress in the Tang Dynasty, beloved by Emperor Xuanzong. Jiāo 嬌 refers to a feminine deportment, submissive yet delightful. Consisting of one hundred characters/words, “Niàn-Nú jiāo” is also called “bǎi-zì lìnɡ” 百字令 (“Hundred-word-tune”). In reference to Su Shi’s setting, the tune is commonly known as “dà jiāng dōng qù” 大江東去, “Chìbì cí” 赤壁詞, and “lèi jiāng yùe” 酹江月 (or “lèi yùe” 酹月).[7]

The standard structure of “Niàn-Nú jiāo” is of two stanzas.[8] There are ten verses in each stanza. Verses 3, 5, 8 and 10 are rhymed. The same rhyme, most often in “entering tone,” is used throughout. Prosodic patterns of verses 4 to 10 are identical in both stanzas. As poets took the liberty of breaking and combining verses, the number and length of verses were often varied.

Battle of Chìbì 赤壁之戰

At the end of the Han Dynasty, Cao Cao 曹操 controlled the territory north of the Yangtze River while Lui Bei 劉備 and Sun Quan 孫權 rivaled in the south. In 208 AD, with the intention of unifying the nation, Cao Cao commanded his army southwards. After initial successes, Cao and his troops advanced along the river, forcing Liu and Sun to form an alliance.

In the winter of the same year, the alliance forces traveling upstream confronted Cao’s navy at Chìbì 赤壁. Numerically, Cao’s force had overwhelming dominance. Yet, the majority of them were from the northen plain and not used to naval warfare. Afflicted by exhaustion, low morale and disease, they retreated to Wulín 烏林 on the north shore.

Across the river, a combined force of well-trained fighters prepared for battle. At the same time, led by Sun’s chief commander Zhou Yu, a strategic plot was developed: Huang Gai, a subordinate of Zhou, noticed that Cao Cao’s battleships were linked together—perhaps, to ease seasickness of his men. Huang proposed to destroy them by fire.

Following a staged confrontation between Zhou and Huang, a messenger was sent to Cao’s camp delivering a letter indicating Huang’s intention to surrender. Ten battle ships loaded with incendiaries were to be followed by small boats. Midway across the river, Huang ordered his fleet to raise their oars shouting, “We surrender!” As the Cao navy was distracted by the cries, Huang’s sailors set fire to the battleships while backing onto the small boats. Aided by southeastern wind, the unmanned fire ships quickly reached the Cao camp and burned the chained ships.[9]

A small number of Sun-Liu’s men continued to assault the remnant of Cao’s troops along the river and on land. Defeated and concerned about the security of the home front, Cao eventually returned to the north and never attempted to invade the south again. Despite the victory, the Sun’s force was weakened during the battle. On the other hand, Liu Bei, having conquered parts of the strategic stronghold Jing Province 荊州 in 208, gained a negotiating advantage.[10]

As the Eastern Han Dynasty fell, Cao, Sun and Liu divided the nation. Cao’s State “Wei” 魏 occupied the northern region. Liu’s “Shu Han” 蜀漢 covered the midstream Yangtze—today’s Sichuan Province, as well as Yunnan, Guizhou, and northern Guangxi. “Sun Wu” 孫吳 ruled the lower Yangtze basin—today’s southeastern provinces. The Three Kingdom period lasted from 220 to 280.[11]

Earliest accounts of the Battle of Chìbì were included in The Records of the Three Kingdoms 三國志 written by Chen Shou 陳壽 (233-279). Sima Guang (1019-1086), a historian of the Song Dynasty, gave detailed descriptions of the battle in chapter 65 of ZiZhi Tongjian 資治通鑑 (published in 1084). Nonetheless, it was the vivid storytelling in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms 三國演義 by Luo Guanzhong 羅貫中 (1320? – 1400?) that captured the hearts and minds of generations of Chinese readers.[12]

Zhou Yu 周瑜

Zhou Yu (175-210), courtesy name Gongjin 公瑾, was born into a prestigious family of high-ranking officers. He first served under Sun Quan’s brother Sun Ce 孫策. Similar in age, Sun Ce and Zhou Yu established a close relationship. At the age of 24, they married the beautiful Qiao sisters: Sun married the older sister (“Da Qiao”) and Zhou, the younger one (“Xiao Qiao”). In the following year, Ce was assassinated. Zhou began advising Ce’s younger brother Quan. Most historical sources credited Zhou Yu for leading and winning the Battle of Chìbì.

A military man, Zhou was known to have great musical intuition. It was said that, even after three rounds of drinks, he was able to detect any musical mistakes and would throw a look at the musician.[13] He was said to have a very handsome appearance and was nicknamed “Mei Zhou Lang” (“Beautiful Young Master Zhou”). He was also praised for his noble character.

In 210, Zhou Yu proposed to invade Yi Province 益州, governed by Liu Zhang 劉璋, and then, annex the Hanzhong 漢中 region, controlled by Zhang Lu 張魯. The goal was to force a north-south power balance between Cao and Sun. During the preparation for the new campaign, on his way to Jiangling 江陵, he died at Baqiu 巴丘.[14]

Reminiscence of the Legends at Red Cliffs 赤壁懷古

Due to sarcasm in his poems and partisan conflicts at the imperial court, Su Shi was exiled between 1080 and 1086 in Huangzhou 黃州.[15] In the autumn of 1082, he took a boat trip with a few friends to nearby Chìbì Ji 赤壁磯. The excursion inspired the creations of “Former Ode to the Red Cliffs” 前赤壁賦 and “Niàn-Nú jiāo—Reminiscence of the Legends at Red Cliffs” 念奴嬌, 赤壁懷古.[16] Calligraphy for the Ode in the poet’s hand is preserved at National Palace Museum in Taipei.[17]

Chìbì 赤壁 means “red cliffs.” There are multiple locations in China named Chìbì. The location of the Battle of Chìbì had long been in dispute. The most widely accepted place is northwest of today’s Chìbì City, between Wuhan and Yuèyán, on the south shore of the Yangtze River, facing Wulin on the north shore. Huangzhou Chìbì Ji 黃州赤壁磯 where Su Shi visited is also called Chìbí Ji 赤鼻磯 “Red Nose Rock.”[18] It is several hundred miles downstream from Wulin. Whether or not Su Shi mistook Huangzhou Chìbì as the ancient battlefield, associating the scenery with the legendary event clearly allowed him the freedom to express his feelings.

The stupendous flow of the river was strong enough to wash away thousand-year-old legends; the protrusive cliffs and the thrashing waves, destructive even to the sky and the rocky shores. By guiding the readers into the astonishing landscape and allowing them to imagine the challenges of the battle in such treacherous location, Su Shi avoided gruesome description of the war.

Confident in winning the war, Zhou Yu, dressed casually, was in the company of his beautiful wife. No need for swords and combat, Zhou chatted with ease holding a feather fan. Such was the image that Su Shi created for his hero.

Yet, while the magnificent landscape stood the test of time, mortal lives were transient—regardless of their talents and achievements. Futile pursuits of worldly gains only led to distress. Enlightened, the poet made a toast to the unattainable reflection of the moon.

Su Shi was influenced by Buddhism as well as Taoism since childhood. His parents were both devoted Buddhists. While at a young age, he was sent to a school headed by a Taoist priest. However, a bon vivant,[19] he never led a religious life. In “Niàn-Nú jiāo,” sentiments of escapism are palpable—arguably from impacts from Su’s political tribulation.

The Great River Flows Eastwards . . ..

[1] Another version of this verse reads: “亂石崩雲，驚濤裂岸” “Jagged rocks rupture the clouds, astonishing waves smash the banks.”
[2] “綸巾” guānjīn is a casual headdress made of green silk (青絲). However, the word 青 (green) could also mean “black.” “檣櫓” qiánglǔ (masts and oars) sometimes appears in the homophonous term “強虜” (strong enemies).
[3] 赤壁懷古 chì bì huái gǔ
大江東去，浪淘盡， dà jiāng dōng qù ， làng táo jìn 。
千古風流人物。 qiān gǔ fēng liú rén wù 。
故壘西邊，人道是， gù lěi xī biān ， rén dào shì ，
三國周郎赤壁。 sān guó zhōu láng chì bì 。
亂石穿空，驚濤拍岸， luàn shí chuān kōng ， jīng tāo pāi àn ，
捲起千堆雪。 juàn qǐ qiān duī xuě 。
江山如畫，一時多少豪傑。 jiāng shān rú huà ， yī shí duō shǎo háo jié !
遙想公瑾當年，小喬初嫁了， yáo xiǎng gōng jǐn dāng nián ， xiǎo qiáo chū jià liǎo ，
雄姿英發， xióng zī yīng fā ，
羽扇綸巾，談笑間， yǔ shàn guān jīn ， tán xiào jiān ，
檣櫓灰飛煙滅。 qiáng lǔ huī fēi yān miè 。
故國神遊，多情應笑我， gù guó shén yóu ， duō qíng yīng xiào wǒ ，
早生華髪。 zǎo shēng huá fā 。
人生如夢，一尊還酹江月。 rén jiān rú mèng ， yī zūn huán lèi jiāng yuè 。
[4] Su_Shi_Wiki
[5] Eight-great-prose-masters-of-tang-song_youngchinatravel.com, Pianwen_Wiki
[6] Xin_Qiji_Wiki
Haofang_School_chinesethought.cn_EN
[7] Other alternate names of “Niàn-Nú jiāo” include “hú zhōng tiān” 壺中天, “xiāng yuè” 湘月, “xìng huā tiān” 杏花天, etc.
[8] “Píng gāo tiào yuǎn” 憑空眺遠, another setting by Su Shi, is often used as the model for the standard form of Niàn-Nú jiāo.
[9] 資治通鑑/卷 65: 「瑜等在南岸，瑜部將黃蓋曰：「今寇眾我寡，難與持久。操軍方連船艦，首尾相接，可燒而走也。」乃取蒙沖鬥艦十艘，載燥荻、枯柴、灌油其中，裹以帷幕，上建旌旗，預備走舸，繫於其尾。先以書遺操，詐雲欲降。時東南風急，蓋以十艦最著前，中江舉帆，餘船以次俱進。操軍吏士皆出營立觀，指言蓋降。去北軍二里餘，同時發火，火烈風猛，船往如箭，燒盡北船. . .. 」
[10] Lopez, Vincent. “Fanning the Flames of War: Considering the Military Value of the Three Kingdoms Period in Chinese History at the Battle of Chi Bi.” American Journal of Chinese Studies 17, no. 2 (2010): 145-54. Accessed June 9, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44288933.
[11] Three_Kingdoms_Wiki
[12] Records_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_Wiki, Zizhi_Tongjian_Wiki
Romance_of_the_Three_Kingdoms_Wiki
[13] 三國志/卷 54: 瑜少精意於音樂。雖三爵之後，其有闕誤。瑜必知之，知之必顧，故時人謠曰：「曲有誤，周郎顧。」
[14] Zhou_Yu_Wiki
[15] Su Shi’s mentor Ouyang Xiu 歐陽修 was among the officials convicted during the incident known as “Crow Terrace Poetry Trial” 烏臺詩案. Clearly a case of “guilt by association,” Su was exiled as the government of Huangzhou. Crow_Terrace_Poetry_Trial_Wiki
[16] The introduction of the Ode opened with the date of the excursion: “Autumn of Renxu, in the seventh month after the full moon”—August 18, 1082 in the Gregorian calendar.
[17] Image_Su_Shi-Former_Ode_on_the_Red_Cliff_Wiki
[18] Battle_of_Red_Cliffs#Location_Wiki
Chibizhen-Wulinzhen-Hubei_Google_map
Dongpo-Red-Cliffs_Goolgle_map
To differentiate the two locations, Huangzhou Chìbì is often called Dongpo Red Cliffs or Literary Chìbì 文赤壁; the town in Jiayu County, Military Chìbì 武赤壁.
[19] Su Shi enjoyed sightseeing, tea tasting and wine. An epicurean, many Chinese dishes are named after him.

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Two rivers and a wall (III): The Great Wall 萬里長城

This entry is part 4 of 35 in the series Chinese Art Song

Throughout Chinese history, flood management and border defense were vital signs of the governing power. Levees were essential for protecting human lives, livestock, and farmland. Fortifications were necessary for preventing invasions of foreign forces. Unfortunately, the levees did not always measure up to the power of raging water, and the fortresses could not always fend off the attackers. Moreover, the costs of these infrastructures, both in terms of monetary expenditure and human casualties, often led to suffering of commoners. Still, the levees continued to get higher; and the walls, extended.

The Zhou Dynasty, the longest lasting sovereignty in Chinese history, was divided into the Western Zhou (1046-771 BC) and the Eastern Zhou (771-256 BC)[1]. In the Western Zhou, Chinese people enjoyed several hundred years of peace and prosperity. Although the Zhou court continue to exist for over five centuries, feudalism gradually decentralized the nation. Feudal states, recognized by the Zhou court, competed for control of land and power. Historians divided this transitional period, between the Western Zhou and the Qin Dynasties, into Spring and Autumn Period (771-476 BC), so named because of the chronicle Spring and Autumn Annals,[2] and the Warring States Period (476-221 BC). Fortresses were erected by Individual states to protect themselves from aggressive neighbors. These structures were called 城牆, literally “town-walls.”[3] Defensive walls were also constructed in northern states to ward off invasions from predatory tribes. Structurally, these fortifications were small in scale. Strategically, they were crucial to the balance of power among the states.

In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified the nation; established the Qin Dynasty; and proclaimed himself the First Emperor.[4] Seven years later, he dispatched General Meng Tian, commanding three hundred thousand men, to expel invaders from the west and the north, protecting Hetao, and to build the “long wall.” Sima Qian, a historian of the early Han Dynasty, who reported these events in Records of the Grand Historian, further detailed the constructions: “Based on the geographic features, strategic fortresses were set up from Lintao to Liaodong, meandering for ten thousand li.”[5] This accounted for the first document in which the length of the wall was mentioned. Constructed with rammed earth, most of the original structures did not survive. Reconstructions and extensions of the wall continued throughout the later periods. The existing structures are mainly the stone walls from the Ming Dynasty.

It is impossible to know the exact number of forced labors drafted for the wall construction. The toll in human suffering is, on the other hand, unquestionable. In a Chinese folktale, Lady Meng Jiang, whose husband had been taken by officials to the north to build the wall, traveled alone days and nights to search for him. By the time she reached the wall, he had died of exhaustion, and was buried under the wall. She sat by the wall and cried until her tears caused the wall to collapse and revealed his bones.[6]

With the unification of the nation, the walls of individual states were torn down. The sole function of the Long Wall was to prevent the invasions of foreign tribes. 拒胡 “resisting Hu” was a generic term used to describe such approach. “Hu” in its boarder sense could imply any outside groups and their cultures. From generation to generation, the names of various foreign tribes were recorded in history books. Xiongnu, a nomadic pastoral people from the northern steppes, were the most aggressive and most recognized invaders. Turkic peoples were also repeat offenders. Others included Xianbei from Mongolia/Inner Mongolia, and Korean from the northeastern region.[7] These foreign tribes invaded China mostly for material and territorial gains. On the other hand, as defenders, rulers of China sought to protect not only their land and prosperity, but also their cultural heritage: one that invented paper, gunpowder, compass, and printing—both woodblock engraving and movable type.[8]

Remnants from the Neolithic Age, including agricultural tools and fabrics, indicated that human civilization had begun along the Yellow River.[9] Nevertheless, the legendary Yellow Emperor, Huangdi (2711-2598 BC?), was hailed as the initiator of the “five thousand years” of Chinese culture. His wife, Leizhu, was credited for the invention of sericulture. Their direct descendant Da Yu, revered for his success in flood management, founded the Xia Dynasty, the first in the nation’s history. [10] Although there are no existing records of these ancient rulers, Chinese people often identify themselves as descendants of Yan-Huang炎黃 and/or Hua-Xia 華夏.[11]

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600-1046 BC) succeeded the Xia. Inscriptions on Shang oracle bones, ox scapulae or tortoise plastrons, bore evidence of the earliest written form of Chinese language, ritualistic acts, and related events. In late Shang, scripts were cast onto bronze ceremonial instruments, a practice that continued in later periods.[12]

The creation and application of a written language paved the way for rapid and formative cultural growth throughout the Zhou Dynasty, especially during the Spring and Autumn Period: Chronicles, poetry, and philosophic writings of this period formed the body of Chinese canonical texts. In 551 BC Kong Qiu was born in the State of Lu.[13] Intelligent and studious, he grew to be the educator and philosopher known to Westerns today by his Latinized honorifics “Confucius.” His teaching—Ruism—became the nucleus of the Huaxia culture, influencing over two thousand years of literature, governmental systems, and day-to-day life in China as well as in neighboring Asian countries.

Since the Han people are the largest ethnic group in China, to defend Chinese culture was to defend the Han culture. While the Great Wall provided strategical security, Ruism offered the spiritual sustenance. Periodically, China was governed by non-Han groups—all invaders from the north—partially or entirely. Inevitably, these foreign rulers either adopted the Han culture or overturned by the Han people. [14]

The Manchus, descendants of the Jurchen, seized Beijing, capital of the Ming Dynasty in 1644 and established the Qing Dynasty. They were the last and the longest non-Han rulers of China proper. While maintaining their own customs, they quickly adopted Confucian governing system and the Han language.[15] The Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a Chinese dictionary in 1710. Containing over forty-seven thousand characters, it took six years to complete.[16] In 1772, the Qianlong Emperor ordered the compilation of Siku Quanshu — Complete Library in the Four Branches of Literature—the largest collection of books in Chinese history.[17] It was divided into four groups: classics, history, philosophy, and literature. Despite the controversies of censorship and editorial approach, the compilation helped to relocate and preserve many ancient sources, thought to have been lost.

In the height of the Qing Dynasty, there was a renaissance of Ruism. As in all prosperous times throughout Chinese history, the imperial courts considered the nation as the center of the world and themselves the ruler of the universe. Whether the earth was flat or round, they wished to make their power as far-reach as possible. With a sense of pride, they also wished to share the treasurable Chinese culture with all peoples. The vastness of the land and the richness of resources helped sustaining the fantasy until the mid-19th century.

Jesuit missionaries began arriving in China in the 16th century and became conduits of cultural exchanges. For several hundred years, what they introduced to China was thought to be trivial or even frivolous. Suddenly, when being defeated by the English and its European allies during the Opium Wars, the Qing Imperial Court became aware of the strength of western cultures. In the follow decades, a soul-searching took place among Chinese elites. Having been the core of Chinese civilization for thousands of years, Ruism became the culprit for the weakening of the nation. The final line of defense for the national pride crumbled.

Today, the remnants of the Great Wall stand testament to the strength of a brilliant civilization. They are reminders for all Chinese descendants, Han or non-Han, to preserve the traditions while embracing new ideas.

[1] Zhou_Dynasty_facts_&_details
[2] Spring_and_Autumn_Annals_Wiki
[3] The earliest existing wall, located in today’s Shandong Province, was built by the State of Qi. The construction was believed to have started in 441 BC. Great_Wall_of_Qi_Wiki
[4] The Qin Dynasty lasted only for fifteen years. The tyrannical, oppressive governing style of the emperor contributed greatly to its demise.
[5] Hetao, “river loop,” is a region in Northwestern China where the Yellow River forms an upside-down-U shape loop. Hetao_Wiki
The exact length of li is believed to be 415.8 meter during the Qin Dynasty. Map_of_the_Qin_wall_jpg_travelchinaguide.com
《史記·蒙恬列傳》：「秦已並天下，乃使蒙恬將三十萬眾，北逐戎狄，收河南。築長城。因地形，用制險塞，起臨洮，至遼東，延袤萬餘里。」
[6] Lady_Meng_Jiang_Wiki
[7] 遊牧民族/中國歷史上的遊牧民族_Wiki, Xiongnu_Wiki, 突厥_Wiki, Turkic_peoples_Wiki,
Xianbei_Wiki
[8] List_of_Chinese_inventions_Wiki
[9] Yangshao_culture_facts_&_details
[10] Yellow_Emperor_Wiki, Leizu_Wiki, Sericulture_Wiki, Yu_the_Great_Wiki
[11] 炎黃子孫_Wiki, Yan_Huang_Zisun_Wiki
華夏_Wiki, Huaxia_Wiki
[12] Shang_Dynasty_ancient.eu, Oracle_bone_Wiki, Chinese_bronze_inscriptions_Wiki
[13] Confucius_Wiki
[14] Xianbie established Northern Wei Dynasty in 386 AD, controlling northern China. During their hundred-and-fifty years regime, through intermarriage and systematic conformation, Wei rulers gradually assimilated with the Han people. Wei-dynasty_britannica.com, Northern_Wei_Wiki
Jurchens invaded Northern Song Dynasty and took over northern China and founded the Jin Dynasty in 1115 AD. They proclaimed themselves the ruler of “China,” denying the legitimacy of the Han-governed Southern Song. Initially, the Jin rulers resisted the Han culture. Gradually, they adopted the Song governing system; became indoctrinated by Ruism; and intermarried with the Han people. Jin_dynasty_(1115-1234)_Wiki
In 1271, Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, vanquished the Southern Song and established the Yuan Dynasty, the first non-Han dynasty that controlled the entire Chinese territory. Although the Yuan rulers revived Confucian rituals and founded schools for Confucian scholars, Han people, socially oppressed, rebelled. Legend has it that the leaders of Han revolutionaries hid secret messages in moon cakes, telling people to rise up against the Mongols. In 1368, the Han people established the Ming Dynasty and regained control of the nation, making the Yuan one of the shortest lasting sovereignties in Chinese history.
[15] An anecdote relating to Manchurian court’s approach in governing Han people: A young sociologist in Taiwan sought instructions in Four Books from a leading scholar, a descendant of the Aisin Gioro clan, the imperial family of the Qing Dynasty. As an introductory statement, the scholar mentioned that his ancestors, understanding the importance of Ruism in Chinese culture, made the study and implementations of the classic texts their priority. With this approach, the Manchurian dynasty had solid control of the nations for several centuries.
[16] Kangxi_Dictionary_Wiki
[17] Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries_Wiki