Category: Chinese literature

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Chinese Poetry (VIII): Three Refrains of Yangguan 陽關三疊

This entry is part 13 of 35 in the series Chinese Art Song

王維, Wang Wei
渭城曲/送元二使安西
Air of Weicheng/Send-off for Yuan’er on his mission to Anxi

渭城朝雨浥輕塵
Mists, after the morning rain in Weicheng, dampened the light dust.
客舍青青柳色新
The guest house irradiated, afresh, by verdant willows, all pristine.
勸君更盡一杯酒
I urge you, my friend, to drain another cup of wine:
西出陽關無故人
West of Yangguan, you will find no old friend.[1]

* * * * * * * * *

Air of Weicheng

Wang Wei 王維, one of the leading poets of the High Tang, wrote this poem as a farewell to Yuan’er who would soon be on a mission to the frontier. Er is an informal name meaning the second (child) of the family. Using a casual name to address an official envoy was a clear indication of the closeness between the two men.

They were sharing a drink at a guest house—possibly a courier post—in the town of Wei. A light rain in the morning washed away the dust. The air was slightly damp. Branches of weeping willows, freshened by the rain, cast a green hue on the surroundings. The poet urged Yuan to down another cup of wine since there would be no friends beyond the border.

Wang Wei mentioned three locations in the poem:

•Weicheng 渭城 (Town of Wei): It was named after the Wei River. Located northeast of today’s Xianyang city in Shaanxi province 陝西咸陽市, Weicheng was roughly forty miles—a day’s horse ride—west of the Tang capital Chang’an 長安, today’s Xi’an City 西安.

•Anxi 安西 (meaning “pacifying the west”): In the Tang Dynasty, the inland trade road traveled westwards from Chang’an to the town of Anxi, where it diverged into northern and southern routes. It is today’s Guazhou county 瓜州縣, under the jurisdiction of Jiuquan city of Gansu province 甘肅酒泉市. Because of its unique geographic and climatic features, it is the site of Gansu Wind Farm, a large-scale wind power project.[2]
Anxi was also the name of a military institution—Anxi Grand Protectorate (or Protectorate General to Pacify the West) 安西都護府, headquartered in Qiuci 龜茲.[3] It was established in 640 to secure the westernmost territory. About a decade later, four garrisons were installed to fortify the military control of the region, covering today’s Southern Xinjian. At its height, the authority of the Protectorate reached the border of Persia. Based on Wang Wei’s tone, Yuan seemed to be heading west for a long-term post, likely at the Protectorate.[4]

•Yangguan 陽關 (Yang Pass) was an important pass on the trade road, southwest of Anxi. Its name—the sunny (and southern) pass—was a geographic reference to its northern counterpart Yumen Pass 玉門關.

Wang Wei only mentioned the challenge of losing connection to old friends. What was not said was that there would be no light rain in the morning and no fresh-looking willows in the western frontier. It would be difficult for us today, with modern vehicles and highways, to fully appreciate the physical and emotional demands on the traders and officials traveling across massive deserts during the seventh century. Fortunately, Anxi, Yangguan and Yumen were all near Dunhung 敦煌 where, for centuries, travelers and pilgrims carved their prayers on the wall and left their paintings and manuscripts in the library caves.[5] From these ancient treasures, we have learned of confluences of religions and cultures in the region.

Three Refrains of Yangguan

Born into a musical family, in addition to his literary accomplishments, Wang Wei was also known as a skillful pipa player and a painter. He was appointed the Deputy Master of Music by Emperor Xuanzong 玄宗, in charge of court music.[6] Later critics often commended the commingling of painting, music, and words in his works.

The musical nature of “Air of Weicheng” was clearly indicated in the title. Sun Zhu appropriately placed it under the subcategory yuèfǔ in chapter six of Three Hundred Tang Poems among seven-character jueju (four-line verses). Later the poem became the inspiration of a “qin song,” entitled “Three Refrains of Yangguan” 陽關三疊.

Qin 琴 or guqin (古琴, meaning “ancient qin”) is a fretless seven-string zither. It was considered an instrument for gentlemen and scholars. Most of the qin melodies are slow-moving and quiet, with characteristic sliding sounds.[7] Since ancient time, qin was often paired with the 25-to-50-string se [sə]. The latter instrument gradually became obsolete and is very rarely heard today.[8]

Qin melodies are either passed down orally or notated in tablatures. The original notation of “Three Refrains of Yangguan” has long been lost. How the instrumental and vocal parts would have been performed together is also uncertain. Su Shi 蘇軾, a poet of the Song Dynasty, after examining an old source, described the layout: “All verses except the first would be repeated.” It would make sense that the qin melody and the voice would pair each other heterophonically. As the qin melody evolved throughout history, the song texts of “Yangguan” changed accordingly.[9]

Today, the piece is most often heard as an instrumental solo.[10] Chinese American composer Chou Wen-Chung’s 1957 piano work “The Willows are New” was based on the qin melody. Chou also adopted the phraseology and sonority of the ancient instrument for his work on the modern “western qin.”[11] A piano/voice version of “Three Refrains of Yangguan” by Hong-Kong-based musician/engineer Wong Wing-Hee 黃永熙 has been popular among the recitalists.[12]

[1] 渭城朝雨浥輕塵， [wèichéng zhāo yǔ yì qīng chén]
客舍青青柳色新。[kèshè qīngqīng liǔ sè xīn.]
勸君更盡一杯酒，[quàn jūn gèng jìn yì bēi jiǔ]
西出陽關無故人。[xī chū yángguān wú gùrén]
[2] Google map showing direction from Xianyan to Guazhou county
Gansu Wind_Farm/Wiki
[3]Quici is more commonly known as Kucha today.
[4] Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West/Wiki
[5] Silkroad_Dunhuang_en.unesco.org
[6] Wang’s grandfather Wang Zhoù was music official of the Sui Dynasty. His official title at Xuanzhong’s court was 大樂丞.
Wang_Wei_(Tang_dynasty)/Wiki
[7] The Qin/The Metropolitan Museum; Guqin/Wiki
[8] Se_(instrument)/Wiki. Se was gradually replaced by zheng, another plucked zither with movable bridges. Japanese koto is related to se and zheng.
Qin_and_Se_YouTube A rare performance of qin and se. The instrument seen on the screen-right is qin.
[9] In his blog,” American qin specialist John Thompson mentioned a few possible performance practices of “qin songs:” http://www.silkqin.com/05poet/songs.htm
Yangguan_Variation_YouTube This link includes a qin/vocal performance based on the notation in qinxue rumen (琴學入門, “Introduction to Qin Study”) of 1867. The original poem was repeated three times, each followed by additional texts. A musical and textual coda concludes the piece:
渭城朝雨浥輕塵，客舍青青柳色新。勸君更進一杯酒，西出陽關無故人。
遄行，遄行，長途越渡關津。
歷苦辛，歷苦辛，歷歷苦辛，宜自珍，宜自珍。
****
渭城朝雨浥輕塵，客舍青青柳色新。勸君更進一杯酒，西出陽關無故人。
依依顧戀不忍離，淚滴沾巾。
感懷，感懷，思君十二時辰。
誰相因，誰相因，誰可相因，日馳神，日馳神。
****
渭城朝雨浥輕塵，客舍青青柳色新。勸君更進一杯酒，西出陽關無故人！
旨酒，旨酒，未飲心已先醇。
載馳駰，載馳駰，何日言旋軒轔，能酌幾多巡！
千巡有盡，寸衷難泯，無窮(的)傷感。
尺素申，尺素申，尺素頻申，如相親，如相親。
****
噫！從今一別，兩地相思入夢頻，聞雁來賓。
Qin_and_Vocal_Solo_YouTube: Qin specialist Liao Quizhen 廖秋蓁 recited the poem in Taiwanese.
[10]Three_ Refrains_qin_solo_YouTube
[11] The_Willows_Are_New_Chou Wenchung_composition, Chou_The_Willows_Are_New_Gloria_Change_Piano
[12] Chen Xinhao 陳欣豪, baritone; Lin Huiling 林慧伶, piano

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Chinese Poetry (VII): Tang poetry

This entry is part 12 of 35 in the series Chinese Art Song

Peace and prosperity

After over three centuries of turmoil, China was reunified by Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty in 581 AD. His administration oversaw numerous social and economic reforms, the construction of the Grand Canal and the establishment of imperial service examination.[1] Unfortunately, plagued by infighting, the dynasty lasted only for thirty-seven years, too brief to have real impact on cultural development.[2] Nonetheless, it ushered in one of the high points of Chinese history—the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 AD), during which political unification stimulated societal stability, economic growth, and territorial expansion. Peace and prosperity brought forth cultural progress.

A network of trade roads connecting China with Central Asia, Middle East, and Europe, known as the Silk Road, was instrumental in facilitating the economic and cultural advancements. These roads were initially developed during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty in the late second century BC. As the imperial power declined later in the Eastern Han, the roads were closed to prevent invasions from the nomadic tribes. Centuries later, the network reopened and expanded in the Tang Dynasty, with its western end reaching Constantinople and beyond.[3]

Along with exotic commodities, travelers and explorers brought in new musical instruments, dances, religions, and ideas. In an environment often described as the second Pax Sinica, cosmopolitan attitudes contributed to artistic exuberance and philosophic sophistication. Rich productions of high-quality works contributed to the golden age of Chinese arts and literature.

Popularization

Poetry writing was a required skill for candidates of the imperial service exams during the Tang Dynasty. Scholars who wished to pursue careers in civil services and politics had to be proficient in versification.[4] No longer an elitist art form, poetry became an integral part of literacy for the commoners, and, gradually, a part of social life. Quan Tangshi (Complete Tang Poetry) 全唐詩, compiled in 1705 by the commissioned of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty, included over forty-eight thousand and nine hundred works by more than twenty-two hundred poets.[5] Although the authenticity and the authorship of some works remain debatable, the collection attests the popularity of poetic writing in the Tang Dynasty.

Around 1763, retired official and scholar Sun Zhu 孫洙, with the help of his wife Xu Lanying 徐蘭英, compiled and edited three hundred and eleven Tang poems. In his introduction, Sun communicated his desire to create a collection which would be suitable for the education of young readers. Three Hundred Tang Poems have since made popular some of the best works of the period. Among the most celebrated poets were: Wan Wei 王維, Li Bai 李白 and Du Fǔ 杜甫, all of the High Tang (c. 712-756).[6]

Forms and style

Intended to cover all varieties of poetry, Sun Zhu organized his anthology by formal and stylistic characters:

• 33 Five-character gushi (ancient verses) and 7 yuèfǔ
• 28 Seven-character gushi and 14 yuèfǔ
• 80 Five-character lühsi (eight-line regulated verses)
• 50 Seven-character lüshi and 1 yuèfǔ
• 29 Five-character jueju (four-line regulated verses) and 8 yuèfǔ
• 51 Seven-character jueju and 9 yuèfǔ[7]

This layout reflected prosodic evolution during the Tang Dynasty.

The term “ancient verses” referred to poems in the style of Han and Jian’an poetry: no set number of verses, no restrictions on pairing and tonal structures, and loose in rhyming. Five-character verses were first developed in the Eastern Han Dynasty, while seven-character verses could be traced back to Cao Wei of Jian’an Era.[8] Yuèfǔ poems also attested to traditions of previous centuries. Suitability for singing separate them from the other poems.

Regulated verses were new style poems of the Tang Dynasty, appropriately named jintishi 近體詩— “modern styled poems” at the time.[9] The majority of regulated verses could be divided into two groups: lüshi—eight-line verses, and jueju—four-line verses. Although verses in jueju did not have to be paired, those in lüshi were grouped into four couplets. In addition to these short verses, there were long-form poems called “pailü,” made up of series of couplets. All regulated verses had strict rules in rhyming and tonal organizations. These rules were based on the phonological characters of Middle Chinese, prescribed in Qieyun 切韻, a rhyme dictionary of the Sui Dynasty[10]

There four tones in Middle Chinese: level (平 píng), rising (上 shǎng), departing (去 qù) and entering (入 rù). The three non-level tones are designated as oblique (仄 zè) tones. Poetic verses were constructed with fixed tone patterns alternating between level and oblique tones. Verses in each couplet would have opposite tone patterns.[11]

Chinese, like all other languages, continued to change throughout its long history. Regional variants further complicated its evolution. Lu Fayan 陸法言 in Qieyun using the fanqie method associated words by their initial and final sounds. The book not only solidified literary pronunciations of each character but also set foundation for a precise rhyming system.

Legacy

The legacy of Tang poetry went far beyond the tremendous collection of literary works, the richness of their subjects, and the eloquence of their content. The maturing of versification during the Tang Dynasty had great impact on poetic developments of the following centuries. Regulated tonal patterns and rhyme schemes heightened musicality in Chinese verses. Increasingly, poetry became integrated with music and theatrical arts.

[1] Imperial_examination/Wiki
[2] Sui_dynasty/Wiki
[3] The name “Silk Road,” coined by German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877, is misleading on several fronts. Instead of a single corridor linking two sides of the world, there was an intricate network consisted of three main sections, each with three branches. Although silk was among the commodities, a great variety of goods were traded intercontinentally.
Commercial trade between China and the outside could be traced back to the bronze age. In 139 BC, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty dispatched Zhang Qian 張騫 as an envoy, traveling westwards, to search for commodities and to establish connections. During his thirteen-year journey, Zhang reached several regions in Transoxiana (today’s Central Asia). In addition to reporting the locations and civilizations of various countries and territories, Zhang also brought back new animals and agricultural goods. Silk_Road/Wiki; Zhang_Qian/Wiki
[4] In his “Concise Guide to Three Hundred Tang Poems” 唐詩三百首指導大概, twentieth-century poet Zhu Ziqing 朱自清 remarked that, during the Tang Dynasty, candidates of the civil service examination often had their poetic compositions evaluated by high level officials prior to the exams. High praises would indicate positive outcome.
Prosodic composition was eliminated from the examination in the Song Dynasty but reinstated in the Qing Dynasty. As a result, there was a renewed interest in poetry in the late eighteenth century.
[5] Quan_Tangshi/Wiki
[6] Three_Hundred_Tang_Poems/Wiki, 唐詩三百首/zh.Wikisource/Wiki
[7] Some later editions grouped all the yuèfǔ into a separate chapter.
[8] Gushi_(poetry)/Wiki
[9] Regulated_verse/Wiki
[10] Qieyun 切韻, Lu Fayan 陸法言 in 601. Qieyun/Wiki
[11] The four tones in Middle Chinese are not compatible with ones in Mandarin Chinese.The “entering” or “checked” tone which ends with a glottal stop only exists in a few regional dialects today. While most characters with tones 1 and 2 in Mandarin are found in the “level” tone groups in the rhyme dictionaries, and tone 3 and 4, in the “oblique,” there are many exceptions. Four_tones_Middle_Chinese/Wiki, Checked_tone/Wiki