Chu was the strongest feudal state in the late Spring and Autumn Period. During the Warring States Period, with series of declines and revivals, it remained one of the largest states south of the Central Plain, rivaling the Qin on its west. Centered in the midstream regions of the Long River, at its height, Chu’s territory extended southwards bordering the northern areas of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Guangdong. [1]
The culture of Chu found its roots in Huaxia civilization. After the establishment of the feudal state (740 BC) in the early Zhou Dynasty, with increasing influences from regional customs, Chu culture gradually gained its own characters. Originated in Hubei area, it followed the Long River eastwards into today’s Jiangsu, Anhui, and Zhejiang.
The people of Chu were free-spirited, adventurous, and all-embracing. Rather than ethics and decorum, spiritual pursuits and personal expressions dominated Chu culture. The practice of shamanism, likely adopted from ethnic traditions of the south, was widespread. Music and dance were not only crucial elements of shamanistic rituals, but also important parts of daily life of Chu.[2]
The most well-known story of the songs of Chu came from the Records of the Grand Historian:[3]
After the end of the Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang, the founder of the Han Dynasty, and Xiang Yu, the self-proclaimed Hegemon-King of Western Chu, fought for the control of the entire nation.[4] During the final battle in Gaixia (202 BC), about ten thousand of Chu soldiers, exhausted and short of supplies, were surrounded by Han forces on all sides. One night, they were shocked to hear sounds of Chu songs coming from Han camps. Even Xiang Yu was wondering why there were so many Chu folks: “Could it be that Chu land had fallen?”
From Sima Qian’s recount, we not only learn of Liu Bang’s brilliant psychological strategy but also the bond that Chu people had with their native songs. Without making any military move, Liu successfully shook the moral of Chu soldiers. Such was the power of music and words.
As the story continued: Xiang Yu stayed up all night drinking. Keeping him company was his beloved Consort Yu. In despair, he lamented:
力拔山兮氣蓋世。
I have the strength to uproot mountains; the spirit to dominate the world.
時不利兮騅不逝。
The circumstance is hostile to me; even my steed Zhui no longer runs.
騅不逝兮可奈何！
Zhui does not run; what can I do?
虞兮虞兮奈若何！
Yu, Oh, Yu, what can I do with you?
These verses, known as “Song of Gaixia,” became the inspiration of numerous literary and dramatic works. [5] Along with a few other poems of Chu preserved in historical sources, they also provided us a glimpse of poetic creations in the region during the Warring State Period.[6]
According to Book of Han, poems are verses recited instead of sung.[7]With the dominance of songs in Chu culture, the flourish of poetic creation in the region should come as no surprise. Qu Yuan 屈原 (c. 340–278 BC), the first known poet in Chinese history, was a trusted minister of King Huai in his early years. From the opening verses of his epic poem “Li Sao,” we were introduced to his royal ancestry, and the significance of his names. He then recited his political struggles, life in exiles and unrelenting devotion to his king. As his thoughts wove in and out of reality and fantasy, he led the readers traveling through time and space. Ornate descriptions of metaphorical subjects—flora of Chu and mystical fauna, transfiguring sentiments as well as other shamanistic elements filled the three hundred and seventy-odd verses. Mixed in with the sophisticated vocabulary are regional lexicon, including functional words which punctuated the verses.[8]
An idealist, Qu Yuan eventually took his own life. His literary successors included Song Yu 宋玉, Tang Lè [lə] 唐勒, and Jǐng Cuō景差. Highly acclaimed for their skillful works, these later writers preserved the lyricism in Qu Yuan’s writing but avoided words of admonitions.[9]
The popularity of Chu style poetry continued throughout the Han Dynasty, as the imperial family had its roots in Chu.[10] It was known that Emperor Gaozu—Liu Bang—loved “the sounds of Chu.” In 195 BC, after putting down the rebellion of Ying Bu, Liu Bang visited his hometown. At a banquet, in drunken ecstasy, he sang:
大風起兮雲飛揚
Mighty wind rises—blowing clouds up high
威加海內兮歸故鄉
Strengthened my dominancy—returning to my native town
安得猛士兮守四方
Where to find vigorous men—guarding all corners of my land.[11]
The term Chu-ci 楚辭 first appeared in Records of the Grand Historian, Chapter 122, referencing to Emperor Wu’s passion for verses of Chu.[12] Generations later, Emperor Xuan revived his great grandfather’s practice of surrounding himself with literary figures familiar with Chu-ci, among them Wang Bao and Liu Xiang (77 – 6 BC).[13] The latter, a distant relative of the Emperor, compiled verse of Qu Yuan, Song Yu, Jǐng Cuō along with several works of the Han Dynasty, including one of his own, into an anthology Songs of Chu (Chuci). The original collection comprised of sixteen sets of poems—with seven by Qu Yuan. Wang Yi (89 – 158 AD) of the Eastern Han Dynasty was the first commentator of the anthology. His poetic set “Nine Longings” was the final addition to the collection.[14]
The second poetic anthology in Chinese history is hugely different from the first one. Although both are results of centuries-long efforts, the creation and compilation process for Classic of Poetry was contemporaneous. The creation of poems in Songs of Chu began in the Warring States Period. While the compilation and editorial process only began much later in the Han Dynasty. Classic of Poetry represents culture and life of the Yellow River region—the Central Plain. Songs of Chu is its southern counterpart of the Long River region. Poems in Classic of Poetry are anonymous works about commoners. Verses in Songs of Chu are by aristocratic authors focusing on self-explorations and -expression. Classic of Poetry is rooted in Ruism and, therefore, included in the Jing 經 (classic texts) section of Siku Quanshu. Songs of Chu is rooted in regional culture and placed on the top of the Ji 集 (literary anthology) section.[15]
Although Chuci had been preserved in a written form, the spoken sounds of Chu were lost.[16] Still, its sophisticated vocabulary and fanciful nature had profound impact on later poetic writing. Stylistic, it became the foundation of Han fù 賦, which, in turn, influenced descriptive compositions, both in verse and prose forms, of later period.[17]
[1] Spring_and_Autumn_period_Wiki,
Chu_(state)_Wiki
[2] 王逸《楚辭章句‧九歌序》：「昔楚國南郢之邑，沅湘之間，其俗信鬼而好祠。其祠，必作歌樂鼓舞以樂諸神。」
[3] Records_of_the_Grand_Historian_Wiki, 史記, 本紀, 項羽本紀/ctext.org
[4] Chu_Han_Contention_Wiki
[5] In the last centuries: The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell is among the most popular repertoire of Beijing opera. Deriving from it, were Lilian Lee’s novel Farewell My Concubine and its film adaptation (1993), directed by Chen Kaige.
Sima Qian only mentioned that Yu responded to the king’s lament. However, in Lu Jia’s Spring and Autumn of Chu-Han 楚漢春秋, one of Sima’s sources, there was a responding poem from Yu:
漢兵已略地， Han force has already taken the land,
四方楚歌聲。 Sounds of Chu song coming from all sides.
大王意氣盡， Great King, you have exhausted your will power.
賤妾何聊生。 How could I, the lowly consort, speak of surviving?
[6] There was “Song of a Boy,” which first appeared in Mencius, “Li Lou I-8” 〈孺子歌〉, 《孟子‧離婁上, 八節》, Mengzi/li-lou-i/ctext.org (Chinese and English), and later in Chuci “Yu Fù—the Fishman’s Song” 《楚辭‧漁父》.
“Song of the Yue Boatman” 越人歌, recorded in Liu Xiang’s Shuo Yuan 說苑, was the earliest translated poem in Chines history. Song_of_the_Yue_Boatman_Wiki
[7] 《漢書‧藝文志》: 「不歌而誦謂之賦。」Book_of_Han#Treatises_wiki (Volume 30)
[8] Qu Yuan’s family name was Mǐ 芈, the royal name of Chu. Qu 屈 was the name of his family’s fiefdom. His given name at birth was Píng 平. And, finally, his courtesy name which he used in adulthood was Yuan 原.
Qu Yuan used elegant and fragrant flowers to symbolize virtuous people, especially great leaders. The plants that he quoted repeatedly include Angelica dahurica 茝 (白芷), Acorus calamus 荃 (菖蒲), Eupatorium fortunei 佩蘭, and Asarum forbesii (wild ginger) 杜衡 (蘅).
宋‧黃伯思:《東觀餘論》, 卷下〈校定楚辭序〉: 「葢屈宋諸騷, 皆書楚語, 作楚聲, 紀楚地, 名楚物, 故可謂之楚辭. 若些只羌誶蹇紛侘傺者楚語也, . . . 蘭茝荃葯蕙蘋者楚物也。」
Verses in “Li Sao” are organized in couplets. The word “兮” xi is used to divide each pair. Other idiomatic interjections include 苟 gǒu, 羌 qiāng, and 蹇jiǎn. (The pinyin are based on modern pronunciations.)
[9] I previously wrote about Qu Yuan’s death: 端午節-dragon-boat-festival_goldfishodyssey.com/2019/06/08/
Song_Yu_Wiki, 景差_Wiki_zh-tw (繁體中文) , 唐勒_Wiki_zh-tw (繁體中文)
《史記‧屈原賈生列傳》:「屈原既死之後，楚有宋玉、唐勒、景差之徒者，皆好辭而以賦見稱。然皆祖屈原之從容辭令，終莫敢直諫。」
[10] Liu Bang, the first Emperor of Han, was born into a peasant family in Pei County 沛縣of Chu. It is in today’s Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province.
[11] 《漢書‧禮樂志》: 「高祖樂楚聲。」; 《史記‧卷八‧高祖本紀》
[12] 《史記‧酷吏列傳‧張湯傳》「始，長史朱買臣，會稽人也。讀春秋。莊助使人言買臣，買臣以楚辭與助俱幸，侍中，為太中大夫. . . 」
Emperor Wu, Liu Che, was also known to have created “Ode to the Autumn Wind” 秋風歌(113 BC): https://www.en84.com/71.html (Chinese and English)
[13] 《漢書·王褒傳》: 「宣帝時修武帝故事，講論六藝群書，博盡奇異之好，徵能為楚辭九江被公，召見誦讀，益召高材劉向、張子僑、華龍、柳褒等待詔金馬門。. . . 聞王褒有俊材，請與相見，使褒作中和、樂職、宣布詩，選好事者令依鹿鳴之聲習而歌之。」
[14] Traditionally, Liu Xiang was credited for the compilation of the anthology. Nevertheless, his ancestor Liu An (c. 179-122 BC) wrote an introduction as well as commentary to “Li Sao,” the center piece of the anthology. Recent scholarship has suggested that the compilation process might have started at the hands of Liu An. It is worth mentioning that bot Liu An and Liu Xiang were descendants of the royal family.
[15] Complete_Library_of_the_Four_Treasuries_Wiki
[16] Chu_(state)#Linguistic_influences_Wiki, 楚語_Wiki_zh-tw (繁體中文)
[17] Fu_(poetry)_Wiki